Pandemics

A pandemic describes the large-scale to worldwide spread of an infectious disease. These can be caused by bacteria, such as the plague or cholera, viruses, such as HIV/AIDS or COVID-19, or other pathogens. Most pandemic pathogens jump from animals to humans, adapt to their new host, and then spread between people.

Nowadays, pathogens can spread rapidly across the globe, especially via air links, and infect a large number of people very quickly, as the COVID-19 pandemic has shown. Scientific, social, and political measures are therefore needed to prevent outbreaks and mitigate the effects of any pandemics that do occur.

The aim of pandemic prevention is to prevent the outbreak of a pandemic in advance. To this end, known pathogens and local outbreaks of disease are regularly investigated in order to keep an eye on their development and potential for pandemics. In addition, new therapeutic approaches and vaccines are developed and refined, and vaccination campaigns are carried out.

Pandemic preparedness is closely related to pandemic prevention and includes some of the same measures. The aim of pandemic preparedness is to combat any pandemics that occur in the best possible way. At state and municipal level in particular, this includes stockpiling vaccines, medicines, masks and gloves, medical materials and equipment, political coordination and planning and public information campaigns to ensure that the measures taken are understood and accepted by the population.

A particular aspect of pandemic prevention and preparedness is to monitor and prevent the transmission of known and currently unknown pathogens from animals to humans.

Zoonoses

Zoonoses are infectious diseases that are transmitted from animals to humans. Examples include Ebola fever, which is transmitted through contact with wild animals, hepatitis E through the consumption of undercooked pork or game meat, avian influenza, which is transmitted from birds to humans—also known as bird flu—, and SARS-CoV-2, which is thought to originate in bats. There are currently over 200 known zoonoses, which make up a large proportion of known and new human infectious diseases. Infections caused by zoonoses are a constant threat, as humans are in close contact with animals in various areas and as humans normally have no immunity to these zoonotic pathogens.

Zoonotic pathogens can be transmitted to humans through any contact with domestic, farm, or wild animals. Markets where meat or by-products from wild animals are sold are particularly susceptible, as a large number of known or emerging pathogens are present in some wild animal populations. People living in semi-natural and suburban areas are at risk of infection from animals such as rats, foxes, and raccoons. Urbanization and the destruction of natural habitats—for example, the clearing of rainforest for agricultural use—increase the risk of zoonoses due to the change in contact between humans and wild animals.

There are already various established protective measures against zoonoses for people who work in agriculture or come into contact with animals in other professional ways. In contrast, similar measures for contact between humans and animals in urban and suburban areas are still barely established. Furthermore, there is a low level of awareness of the risk of zoonoses in society, which can be increased through educational measures.

Although many effective protective measures against zoonoses are already known, the LBI SOAP is pursuing a special approach. Research programs already exist worldwide to monitor the spread and development of known zoonotic pathogens and to identify new potential zoonoses. These often focus on contact between humans and animals in agriculture. Less attention is paid to close contact in urban and suburban areas. This is where the LBI SOAP comes in to fill this knowledge gap.

Virus Surveilance

A central aspect of pandemic prevention and preparedness is to monitor the existing viruses in humans and animals. Hospitals and doctors in private practice monitor which infectious diseases occur in their work and, if necessary, report these to central offices that collate information from various sources.

An additional approach is to test wastewater for infectious agents. Pathogens are excreted by infected people and end up in sewage treatment plants via the sewage system. Viruses, and especially their genetic material, are quite persistent in the environment and can be detected and characterized in wastewater treatment plants. Wastewater epidemiology therefore allows a picture of the viruses circulating in the entire population to be drawn with relatively little effort. It provides timely data and sources of infection can even be traced back along the sewer network by testing the wastewater. Originally used to monitor polio, wastewater monitoring is now employed for various pathogens. It was particularly widely used during the COVID-19 pandemic, but it can also be used to monitor zoonotic viruses—such as H5N1 influenza in dairy cows in the USA.

Another pillar of virus surveillance is based on cooperation with and the commitment of affected or interested social groups. Those affected by infectious diseases must officially report notifiable diseases such as cholera or hepatitis. However, non-notifiable diseases can also be monitored if the population is encouraged to do so through information campaigns or epidemiological studies are carried out.

Furthermore, people interested in science and pandemic prevention can be involved in monitoring programs in the form of citizen science, in particular to collect and examine samples from the environment. Another effect of this is that the people involved get to know scientific processes and the people behind them better, which can lead to increased trust in them. This in turn helps with the implementation of pandemic preparedness measures. However, for pandemic preparedness to be as effective as possible, there is a need for even broader access that goes beyond the involvement of interested parties and those affected. This is where the LBI SOAP comes in with its interdisciplinary approach, which combines epidemiology and citizen science.

Science Communication

The aim of science communication is to make the results, processes and backgrounds of science and research understandable and accessible to a wide range of target groups. This can take a variety of forms, from science education in schools, public lectures and workshops to participatory collaboration with researchers.

Successful science education serves to get people excited about science and research and to convey the basics of scientific approaches and findings. Particularly in the context of science education in schools, it is essential to make the processes of research understandable. It is important to explain that science does not produce irrefutable truths, but can provide no more and no less than the best provisional answers to our questions.

A public understanding of and trust in science is therefore also central to a democratic society that makes and implements decisions based on scientific findings. This is particularly relevant for pandemic prevention and preparedness measures, as was demonstrated in Austria during the COVID-19 pandemic and the resistance of individual population groups and political decision-makers to protective measures.

For a long time, the so-called deficit model was used to understand science communication. It states that the public has a lack of knowledge about research and that this can be remedied by educating people about the facts of science. However, research on science communication has shown that this one-sided model of communication does not lead to the desired result. Instead, attempts are now increasingly being made to consciously value the expertise of the population and to actively involve the general public and specific population groups in the research process in the form of participatory projects.

Citizen Science and Community Science

In recent decades, the term citizen science has emerged as a central concept for the participatory involvement of society in research. Citizen science involves people outside the sciences in the research process. A frequently used format is data collection in the environment, for example when participants report sightings of certain animals or plants to a central office. Participants can also take part in research themselves in various ways. One particularly involved form of participation is when these “citizen scientists” themselves work at research institutions.

Citizen science is also repeatedly criticized when the public is involved purely or mainly for the purpose of data collection, without actively participating in the research itself. This would represent a very limited form of participation and would instead use the labor of the public without addressing their interests and necessarily strengthening the understanding of and trust in science significantly and broadly. Citizen science projects also appeal primarily to well-educated and affluent sections of the population with advanced educational degrees. This stands in the way of the broad impact of science communication. Furthermore, the connotation of “citizen” can contribute to people not feeling addressed by it—especially if they belong to marginalized groups or do not have local citizenship. For this reason, the term “community science” has now become partially accepted as a further development of citizen science.

Community science can be understood as an inclusive extension of citizen science, although neither term has a precise and generally accepted definition. Community science emphasizes the active involvement of people outside the research community and, in particular, of affected population groups. Research projects in the form of community science should be initiated and co-designed by those affected from the outset and also benefit these communities. However, this designation alone does not guarantee the diversity of the participants and the desired reach of the projects into marginalized population groups. To achieve this, research projects must be designed with the participation of the community from the outset, in contrast to the usual practice to date. The LBI SOAP therefore integrates community science into its research from the outset.

One approach comprises the Virus Surveillance and Virus Characterization projects led by Fabian Amman and Florian Krammer respectively. This involves identifying pathogens with the potential for zoonoses in urban areas, determining their frequency, and investigating their characteristics. For example, the researchers deal with viruses that can be transmitted from animals such as rats, birds, or mosquitoes to humans. The data collected in this way is used to identify risks to public health at an early stage. Based on this, measures are developed to prevent the spread of pathogens. These range from information campaigns for risk groups and suggestions for behavioral changes to the development of vaccines and therapies.

The other approach of the LBI SOAP consists of the project Community Science and the project Science Outreach and Science Education under the leadership of Christine Marizzi and Julia Holzer respectively. The aim is to actively involve the population in research into pathogens and the associated science communication from the outset. Active participation in research and the insights gained as a result promote understanding of and trust in science. The Institute focuses on participation and community science as well as close cooperation with educational institutions. Based on motivational psychology concepts, the LBI SOAP also develops evidence-based measures and guidelines together with representatives from politics and society. These serve to communicate risks to various target groups and decision-makers in an efficient and low-threshold manner. This will enable citizens to make informed and self-determined decisions about their own health in the future.

Initially, the LBI SOAP focuses on strengthening the relationships of all internal and external partners. Within the first year, the monitoring of influenza viruses in bird populations, hantaviruses in the urban rodent population, wastewater monitoring, and the workflow for characterizing viruses will be established. In an initial community science pilot project, citizens are involved in the procurement of samples and the evaluation of the data. In the further course, the monitoring will be extended to viruses in mosquitoes and to suburban areas. All projects will also be evaluated and continuously improved.

Internal and External Cooperations

The Medical University of Vienna serves as the host organization for the LBI SOAP and provides research infrastructure and positions for technicians. In addition, the LBI SOAP also works together with the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute. The research projects of the LBI SOAP are carried out in cooperation with the City of Vienna and Gesundheit Österreich GmbH as partner organizations. Furthermore, four network partners are involved in the work of the institute: Citizen Science Network Austria (Österreich Forscht), Open Science with the Vienna Open Lab, the University of Vienna and the Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES). In addition, the LBI SOAP works together with the Open Innovation in Science Center of the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft. Work is underway to involve further partners.

In addition, the LBI SOAP is significantly supported in its work by the expertise of Adjunct PI Andreas Bergthaler from the Medical University of Vienna and Adjunct PI Barbara Schober from the University of Vienna.

All institutional partners as well as the various projects within the LBI SOAP are closely linked: Environmental samples are collected in collaboration between the Virus Surveillance and Community Science projects. The researchers in the Virus Characterization project examine the samples and share their findings with the other projects to adapt their methods and communicate them to participants and the public. The Community Science and Science Outreach and Science Education projects work closely together to plan, test, and evaluate the effectiveness of outreach methods. This involves application-oriented basic psychological research and the collection of scientific evidence on how such concepts of science communication and education work.

As a partner organization, the City of Vienna provides expertise and access to infrastructure and samples—particularly from wastewater, birds, and rats—and receives information and optimized communication strategies. Gesundheit Österreich GmbH provides access to national and international epidemiological data and serves as an interface to politics and the health sector.

The organization Open Science will collaborate with LBI SOAP on public events and the dissemination of newly developed educational offerings on science education and pandemic preparedness. The Citizen Science Network Austria supports the LBI SOAP in the implementation of community science projects. The University of Vienna supports the LBI SOAP with additional expertise on implementation and transfer research in the educational context as well as in terms of functional cooperation with political decision-makers.

Virus Surveillance

The Virus Surveillance project, led by Fabian Amman, is concerned with monitoring the interface between humans and animals in urban areas where zoonotic viruses can be transmitted. The project is supported by Adjunct PI Andreas Bergthaler from the Medical University of Vienna.

Various animal populations are being sampled, including bird species for the detection of avian influenza viruses with pandemic potential, rodent populations for the detection of hantaviruses, for example, and wastewater for the detection of new or re-emerging viruses in humans. Viruses in animals can be found in their carcasses and excrement. The LBI SOAP can draw on samples from the City of Vienna and the Roadkill project of the Citizen Science Network Austria, which uses an app to encourage the public to document animal carcasses. Continuous wastewater monitoring allows researchers to trace the location of virus outbreaks. The pathogens, hosts, habitats, and geographical scope of the program are regularly evaluated and adapted or expanded as necessary.

In order to make virus monitoring as effective and cost-efficient as possible, the researchers at the LBI SOAP are developing and using methods to pre-screen the samples—similar to the PCR tests that were widely used during the COVID-19 pandemic—to quickly and precisely process a large number of samples and identify the viruses they contain based on their genetic make-up. The subsequent classification is carried out by precisely reading the genetic code of the individual viruses, which is then compared with international reference samples. This allows an initial risk assessment and the tracing of pathways of infections. The methods and software developed in the process are made available to the scientific community and the public in order to promote similar projects at other locations.

About Fabian Amman

Fabian Amman studied microbiology and genetics at the University of Vienna. During his doctoral studies, he began using bioinformatic methods to investigate pathogens. His research ranges from single RNA molecules, to gene regulatory networks in pathogens, to population-wide analyses of circulating viruses using wastewater monitoring. Most recently, he worked at the Center for Molecular Medicine (CeMM) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences and at the Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology at the Medical University of Vienna. At the LBI SOAP, he now heads the virus monitoring project.

Virus Characterization

The Virus Characterization research project, led by Florian Krammer, focuses on the investigation of viruses, their genetic material, and their interactions with their hosts and on the development of measures to prevent their spread. To this end, the researchers carry out experiments on human or animal cell cultures as well as on animal models in compliance with all ethical requirements. Using biomolecular methods, they can better understand the potential of viruses for zoonotic infections and epidemics. They are particularly interested in whether and how viruses cause disease, how they can evade the human immune system, and how they reproduce and evolve.

Through their experiments, the researchers can investigate the level of immunity against viruses that already exists in humans. They can also develop diagnostic procedures and countermeasures such as vaccine candidates and therapeutics. The isolated viruses and their genetic material samples are stored in a specially established biobank for further research.

The results of the project are also fed back to the Virus Surveillance project in order to continuously improve its methods. They also serve as real case studies for the projects on science communication, which the participants can work with.

About Florian Krammer

Florian Krammer studied biotechnology at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna. Since 2010, he has been researching universal flu vaccines and vaccines against corona, Lassa, Hanta, and Ebola viruses at the Institute of Microbiology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York. As an internationally renowned expert, he has published more than 400 scientific papers. He is a member of the American Academy of Microbiology and the Henry Kunkel Society as well as the Board of Directors of the European Scientific Working Group on Influenza. He has been Professor of Infection Medicine at the Medical University of Vienna since 2024. Since 2025, Krammer has been scientific director and project manager at the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Science Communication and Pandemic Preparedness and scientific director of the Ignaz Semmelweis Institute.

Community Science

The Community Science project is led by Christine Marizzi and actively involves the population in environmental sampling, virus research, and the associated scientific communication. This provides access to research and communicates its content and processes. It also promotes a basic understanding of science and trust between all participating individuals and institutions. In particular, underrepresented groups in research and science communication are to be addressed. This helps in the joint development of social measures against pandemics. The researchers and participants work together closely with the other LBI SOAP projects and institutional partners.

The model for these community science projects are the New York City Virus Hunters, which was led by Christine Marizzi and where Florian Krammer served as one of the mentors. This initiative actively involves students from high schools in New York City in the development and implementation of scientific studies investigating viruses in local wild bird populations. Under the guidance of experts, participants collect samples in their own neighborhoods. Some of the students then complete a one-year internship at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, where they analyze the samples, publish studies and present their findings to the public. A similarly styled project is being implemented by the LBI SOAP in Vienna.

About Christine Marizzi

Christine Marizzi studied genetics and microbiology at the University of Vienna with a special focus on inter- and transdisciplinarity. She is an internationally recognized expert in science communication and public relations, especially in the field of citizen science and community science. She developed and managed several citizen and community science programs in the field of biodiversity research for Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and BioBus. She also serves as a science advisory board member for the New York City school system. At LBI SOAP, she now leads the Community Science project.

Science Outreach and Science Education

Science Outreach and Science Education under the direction of Julia Holzer is the fourth project of the LBI SOAP. Its aim is to continuously evaluate and further develop the Institute’s communication and education work. This promotes an open and equal dialog between the public, science, and political decision-makers on the topic of science communication and pandemic preparedness. In addition, the researchers, together with health policy representatives, analyze the key challenges of cooperation between science and politics. They develop concepts for sustainable communication and cooperation between these stakeholders. Adjunct PI Barbara Schober from the University of Vienna is supporting this project with her experience and expertise.

The researchers are using results from educational psychology to investigate how established community science projects such as the New York City Virus Hunters can be implemented and expanded in the Austrian education system. The aim is to give students more than just one-off insights into the research process, but to anchor basic scientific understanding and approaches in the classroom in the long term. In addition to the students, their parents, teaching staff, and the wider community are also involved.

The interfaces between science and political decision-makers are often only sought when they are urgently needed, but then there is no time to build a common language, understanding of roles, and mutual trust. The researchers at the LBI SOAP are therefore investigating and developing concepts for sustainable communication structures between science and politics with the active participation of people from these stakeholder groups.

About Julia Holzer

Julia Holzer studied psychology at the University of Vienna and teaching at the University College of Teacher Education in Vienna. Her research focuses on motivational and socio-emotional learning prerequisites. She also has extensive expertise in the implementation and evaluation of interventions in educational contexts. She is particularly interested in the transfer of scientific findings into practice, politics, and society. She is actively involved in this topic and was honored with the Impact Award of the University of Vienna. Holzer is now head of the LBI SOAP’s Science Outreach and Science Education project.

Why do we need virus surveillance?

Florian Krammer, scientific director LBI SOAP, project manager Virus Characterization: Zoonoses—meaning pathogens that can spread from animals to humans—are being monitored worldwide, but this mainly takes place in agriculture. There is still very little research on this in urban areas, even though diseases can spread particularly quickly there because so many people live close together.

Fabian Amman, project manager Virus Surveillance: As the saying goes: “Danger recognized, danger averted”. The reality of pandemics may be a little more complicated, but it is true that we first have to find and investigate the pathogens. One of our goals is to use new and cost-effective methods to paint as comprehensive a picture as possible of the viruses in the city in order to find out which of them could do what in the future.

Where can pathogens be found in the city?

Amman: Viruses are everywhere, but not every virus is everywhere. For example, we want to know which pathogens are found in the various rodent populations in the city. It’s not just about rats, but also protected animals such as shrews. You don’t have to catch these animals with traps. Instead, you can work with cat owners, for example. If their cat drags in a rodent, they can report it and we would then come and pick it up to test it. We can also explain to people how to handle such animals safely so that they don’t become infected themselves. In Germany, for example, new henipaviruses have been found that way. For viruses in humans, you have to take a slightly different approach.

We all use a toilet. We can take samples from where the excrement comes together in the sewer system. This allows us to see—with varying degrees of accuracy—which viruses are circulating when and where in the Viennese population. However, this works less well for animals because they don’t use toilets that often.

Krammer: You can sample their excrement instead. Either directly from rodents or from scavengers or predators such as foxes. They already eat dead or weakened animals that could be infected. This way, they collect the samples for us and we get a rough overview of all the pathogens in the prey population. What you could find in “Hundstrümmerl” (Viennese slang for dog excrement) would of course also be an exciting project.

What role does community science play in virus surveillance?

Krammer: Without the help of the community, we would not be able to implement some methods. However, it is important to really involve people in the research process and in the evaluation.

Amman: Exactly! Science communication and the involvement of the public are often seen as extra tasks of research institutions that should be done in addition to research. Instead, we think about community science from the very beginning when planning our institute. The involvement of the public is really essential.

What is the plan for the development and future of LBI SOAP?

Krammer: We are starting small with a focus on Vienna. With the city, we also have an important partner organization that helps us with implementation and is very interested in our work. If our methods work, we want to export them beyond Vienna in Austria and hopefully also internationally. To this end, we also want to acquire third-party funding so that we can implement more projects and, ideally, extend the duration of the “SOAP” concept.

Of course, there are also some very tough nuts to crack. I think it’s relatively easy to do community science projects at a high school if there is a lot of prior knowledge and interest. With other groups that have less prior knowledge or are even fundamentally skeptical about science, it’s much more complicated. It is a difficult task, but I am confident that we will be successful.

What role does science communication play in pandemic preparedness?

Julia Holzer, project manager Science Outreach and Science Education: The topic of health, and pandemics in particular, is about much more than just communicating research findings. This is a very emotional topic for many people. It’s clear that nobody wants the next pandemic. We also like to put off such unpleasant topics. However, we need an enlightened society that can deal with the risk of a pandemic and prepare proactively. Pandemic preparedness among the population therefore does not mean buying toilet paper en masse, but being informed and open to political measures and social adjustments. Even the best vaccines are useless if no one is taking them.

Basically, it’s about tolerating ambiguity. In our lives, we encounter questions all the time that have no clear answers. However, our brain does not like this state of uncertainty and tends to block it out. However, uncertainty is particularly important for understanding research, as its results are always provisional until we find better ones. We have seen this with the COVID-19 pandemic. New studies kept coming out and the scientific recommendations kept changing. Instead of doubting science because of this, we should better understand the process behind it.

I think tolerating ambiguity is a skill that we don’t teach enough. In everyday life, in the education system and in the media, scientific findings are often presented as static rather than provisional.

How can community science contribute to pandemic preparedness?

Christine Marizzi, project manager Community Science: With the New York City Virus Hunters project—which I lead—we already have a good template for a community science project for pandemic preparedness. The project started in 2020, during COVID-19! Schools collected samples with the project team, and some of the students then examined them themselves in our laboratory and even co-published scientific studies. As a result, they really gained a better understanding of how research works and were able to take this knowledge home with them. This multiplies the effect of their education in society.

At the beginning, we are taking the time to discuss with various people what we can implement, what is needed, and what is missing. Society simply works differently here in Vienna than in New York. This approach is also the central point of Community Science—the entire study design should be planned together with the community.

Holzer: We are also investigating the psychological mechanisms behind education and science communication and how this can promote tolerance of ambiguity and openness to both pandemic measures and the scientific approach in general. It is psychologically proven that it is better to address and engage people and their community together rather than individually. When people participate in something together, they are much more motivated to engage with it in depth and for longer. This allows science education to be anchored in society more broadly and for longer.

This is particularly important for groups that otherwise have little access to science and perhaps also little trust in it. It’s simply about communicating the fundamental role of research in society and how it can be used to solve problems.